Schedule of Events

In 11th-grade curriculum of California’s public education, the 1860s – 1920s, in the context of U.S. history, defines America as an Imperialist world power. Though this perception is not entirely wrong, United States President Theodore Roosevelt’s infamous quote, “speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far,” instead prevailed in the capitalistic ventures of newly invented corporations utilizing foreign resources. The true powers in the push for America’s  global expansion were not solely the works of an imperialistic-minded government but of a capitalistic economy reliant on big business. Operating much like Britain's 17th century East India Company, new American companies were far-reaching in their business expenditures. United States guano companies in the Pacific, sugar companies in the Caribbean, and the United Fruit Company developed more than just a singular product but whole corporations that ventured into multiple markets including sea travel, railroad development, scientific discoveries, and others for the benefit of Americans, and in some cases, internationally. For the United States, their emergence into foreign lands leading into the 20th century was propagated by capitalistic ventures, making American corporations the true leaders in developing the country’s imperialistic endeavors.

Is it possible that the widely controversial and largely disapproved Soviet Union made progressive steps towards the advancement of women in education, politics, and the workplace? The impact of the Soviet Union created change throughout the world that societies, particularly in the United States, usually perceived as negative, with events such as the “Red Scare” causing ripples throughout American society. Soviet communism and the idea of minimizing the role of the family structure in The Soviet Union liberated women and allowed them to work in male-dominated workplaces, participate in politics, and gain a broader education. While this was a large step towards progress for women, the cult of domesticity lingered, and women were expected to fill both roles in Soviet society. Through the analysis of diaries, government documents, and other primary sources, one can discern the facts and similarities that the particular Soviet women in these sources experienced; through researching their experiences, and comparing them to the experiences of women in other parts of the world during the same time period, the truth is revealed that the Soviet Union was more beneficial towards the advancement of women than any of these other countries, including the United States.

By the late 1930s, Adolf Hitler had risen to power in Germany and the ideals of his Nazi party began to spread throughout Europe. Included in these ideals were staunch antisemitic views, and the Nazi party began to enact new policies throughout the country. Among these policies was a law that allowed anyone deemed “undesirable” to be removed from their job. Many of these undesirables were world renowned scientists and professors that were Jewish or had Jewish families. Fearing persecution, many scientists, recognizing Nazi Germany’s views as well as their rising aggression towards surrounding nations fled Europe. All while this was happening it was discovered that an atomic bomb could theoretically be developed, and a race to be the first to construct one began. Ultimately the United States was the first nation to develop the bomb, thanks to the work done by those in the Manhattan Project. Many of the key members of the Manhattan Project were scientists originally from Europe, and had come to the U.S. fleeing antisemitism. Had Hitler not pushed his anti-semitic beliefs, then many of the key contributors to the Manhattan Project such as Albert Einstein, Edward Teller and Hans Bethe would not have been able to insure the U.S. was first to complete production of the atomic bomb first.

For the generation that survived World War I, the statement the eleventh day of the 11th hour of the 11th month resonated for decades as the end of World War I. History classes discuss primarily the four western leaders, which included France’s Georges Clemenceau, Britain’s David Lloyd George, Italy’s Vittorio Orlando and America’s Woodrow Wilson. Although it can be said the Versailles treaty framed the post-war world, it tends to ignore the fact that almost half the nations present had little to no role in the ultimate treaty. For example, newly-independent Armenia was present at the conference and delegates there were seeking to be recognized as a newly independent nation. Ho Chi Minh, who would become notorious for his role in turning Vietnam communist, petitioned in a letter to the conference for Vietnamese independence from the French. In the case of Japan, they constructed the Racial Equality Proposal, which called for League of Nations countries to treat other nations equally on the basis of their race and nationality. Despite wide support, United States President Woodrow Wilson overturned this proposal.. In relation to the Paris Peace Conference, most historians and accounts of history narrow the focus of the Peace Conference down to the major powers of the world, including France, Great Britain, the United States, and of course, Germany.  Despite this narrow-mindedness, many smaller minority nations were present at the conference who are not appropriately remembered for the roles they played.

Most -if not all- historians agree that the French Revolution began in 1787 with the storming of the Bastille and ended in 1799 with the establishment of the Consulate and the beginning of the Napoleonic era. The absence of an established government in an attempt to abolish the monarchy caused well documented political chaos during the time period, however the political instability through 1793 ultimately devolved into a social and ideological chaos of a different kind. This paper will argue that the revolution actually ended in 1793, with what came after in ideals and sciences so far removed from the original purposes of the revolution in 1789 that it can not be considered part of what we call the French Revolution. Using writings from revolutionaries and scientists of the time, as well as expert retrospective analysis one can juxtapose the revolutionary intentions of pre and post 1793 as an enlightenment fueled uprising and a chaotic power grab refuting enlightenment and scientific ideology. The evolution of the French Revolution from its foundational principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity into a period marked by political turmoil and repression leads one to consider the factors that caused the rapid descent from idealism to a chaotic witch hunt of political dissenters. The traditional periodization of the French Revolution from 1787 to 1799 fails to encapsulate the full scope of the revolution's original ideological and social intentions, therefore concluding that the true revolution concluded in 1793.

Since Ivan the Terrible, Russia has been under a constant state of autocracy. While many different leaders have come and gone out of power, they always have maintained the status quo. The key aspects of this style are an oligarchy, a rigged court system, a group of poor peasants and famine.,While Russia is rich in natural resources, the vast majority of citizens were quite poor and had little to no fair and just courts or justice system. The higher class is often exempt from the consequences that the average person would not have. Russia’s autocarcy has been in power for over 500 years, and while regimes have changed, neither the autocracy nor the aspects of said autocracy have not.

Richard Wright, Mahalia Jackson, and Archibald Motley Jr. came to be only a handful of the plethora of Black visionaries to rise from the early 20th century. Many Black artists from this time emerged during the Harlem Renaissance, a pinnacle in Black artistic history. Yet, contrary to the modern study of the period, these artists emerged from a lesser-known movement: the Chicago Renaissance. The Jim Crow discrimination that Blacks faced in the South was the agency that drove them north during the Great Migration into cities like New York (Harlem) and Chicago. Beginning with the exodus from the South, Blacks settled in cultural communities where literature, art, and music flourished.  By 1930 in Chicago the movement flowered. Along with the art from the movement, the Chicago Defender served as an outlet for Blacks to connect and share their urban culture. The focus that had been directed at the Harlem Renaissance wrongfully dimmed the light of the Chicago Renaissance. Although rarely acknowledged, the Chicago Renaissance created a meaningful African American community that expressed their cultural experiences through literary works and newspapers, visual art, and music.  All of these works formed a Black community that proved to be just as influential as that in Harlem. Through looking at newspaper articles in the Defender, novels such as Black Metropolis, the gospel music of Mahalia Jackson, and artwork such as “Nightlife,” the growth that came out of the renaissances proved to be synonymous.

            Pre-Christian Scandinavian beliefs held a complex view of the afterlife. What did the average Viking age Scandinavian expect to find after death, if anything at all? The commonly held understanding of afterlife belief comes from The Prose Edda. However, the notion that a person expected to go to either ‘Valhalla’ or ‘Hel’  likely comes from the Christian ideology of its author. The Prose Edda describes several other possible destinations with varying degrees of explanation, with one concept made very clear: a person’s actions in life determine their destination in the afterlife. However, Eddic poetry, first hand accounts, familial/heroic sagas, and archeological evidence at sites such as Birka, Sweden suggest a different interpretation. The Voluspa, a poem found in The Poetic Edda,begins with the following stanza. “Heed my words, all classes of men, you greater and lesser children of Heimdall.”. The sentiment reflects the burial sites around the Viking world which could be categorized as ‘greater and lesser’. The longship burials that represent the Viking age were not for just anyone. Complicating things further are the changes in practice over time and geography. This paper argues that the Norse perception of the afterlife was not based on a person's actions, but based primarily on their status. This society was strictly organized, and some were greater, or lesser, than others. For them, why would the next world be any different?

Spain’s new world empire was truly started when they were able to conquer Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital. Lasting ninety-three days, the siege gave the Spanish control of the city and its vast wealth. There are many reasons that are believed to have contributed to Tenochtitlan's fall, such as superior weaponry of the Spanish or political instability within the city. Most commonly believed is that disease was the largest contributor to Tenochtitlan’s fall. Disease did devastate native populations, however, this was irrelevant when discussing how Tenochtitlan fell. Spain relied heavily on indigenous allies when conquering Tenochtitlan, who were equally as susceptible to disease as the Aztecs were. Without these allies, Spain would not have been able to take the city, as there were only about 500 conquistadors at the siege and an estimated 100,000-300,000 Aztec warriors. The allies were composed of 80,000 native warriors, which still put them at a disadvantage. This was made up for by the incredibly disadvantageous geography of Tenochtitlan when it came to war. The city was on an island in the middle of a lake, which created an inability to escape the city and an inability to obtain food and other resources that were located outside of the city. Although there were several potential reasons as to why the Spanish were successful in conquering Tenochtitlan, the geography of the city and the indigenous allies that the Spanish made played the largest roles, not disease.